Evolution Of Non Aligned Movement

Evolution Of Non Aligned Movement The Non-Aligned Movement has historically maintained a clear and unequivocal principled position against all forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and any kind of religious intolerance. In the latest Summit of the Non-Aligned Movement, held in Havana in September 2006  [i]  , the heads of State or Government of the member states reaffirmed once again their condemnation of all forms of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance, including the platforms and activities related thereto, which constitute serious violations of human rights and fundamental freedoms and impede equal opportunity. At the same time, they expressed dismay at instances of religious and cultural prejudices, misunderstanding, intolerance and discrimination on the basis of religion or beliefs, and called for the full respect of cultural and religious diversity. If we flip back and ruminate on the pages of history, the Movements opposition to all these manifestations can be clearly recalled. The Non-Aligned Movement also has always stressed its serious concern on the resurgence of contemporary forms of such abhorrent crimes in various parts of the world. The World Conference against Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance held in Durban, 2001  [ii]  became a milestone in the struggle for equal human rights among all human beings. The effective implementation of the Durbans agreements poses a major challenge now throughout the world; furthermore, it is a debt owed to millions of victims of these abominable practices throughout history. In the era that we live in, being witness to the worrisome re-emergence and consolidation of racism, racial discrimination, xenophobia and related intolerance in various parts of the world has become a pedestrian affair. The establishment of associations and political parties, with a racist platform, the social exclusion and marginalisation of the indigenous peoples, minorities and migrants  [iii]  , the proliferation of discriminatory migration laws and policies  [iv]  , and the passing of anti-terrorist legislation that provide broad spaces to arbitrariness and the exercise of public authority on discriminatory and xenophobic basis, continue to be a matter of concern. CONTEMPORARY RELEVANCE The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) being an international organisation of states considering themselves not formally aligned with or against any major power bloc. The movement was largely the brainchild of Indias first Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, president of Egypt Gamal Abdul Nasser and Yugoslav president Josip Broz Tito. It was founded in Belgrade (1961); as of 2009, it has 118 members and 17 observer countries.  [v]   The purpose of the organisation as stated in the Havana Declaration of 1979 is to ensure the national independence, sovereignty, territorial integrity and security of non-aligned countries in their struggle against imperialism, colonialism, neo-colonialism, racism, and all forms of foreign aggression, occupation, domination, interference or hegemony as well as against great power and bloc politics  [vi]  .They represent nearly two-thirds of the United Nationss members and comprise 55% of the world population, particularly countries considered to be developing or part of the third world  [vii]  . Since the end of the Cold War and the formal end of colonialism, the Non-aligned movement has been forced to redefine itself and reinvent its purpose in the current world system. A major question has been whether many of its foundational ideologies, principally national independence, territorial integrity, and the struggle against colonialism and imperialism, can be applied to contemporary issues. The movement has emphasised its principles of multilateralism, equality, and mutual non-aggression in attempting to become a stronger voice for the global South  [viii]  , and an instrument that can be utilised to promote the needs of member nations at the international level and strengthen their political leverage when negotiating with developed nations. In its efforts to advance Southern interests  [ix]  , the movement has stressed the importance of cooperation and unity amongst member states  [x]  , but as in the past, cohesion remains a problem since the size of the organisation and the divergence of agendas and allegiances present the ongoing potential for fragmentation. While agreement on basic principles has been smooth, taking definitive action vis-à  -vis particular international issues has been rare, with the movement preferring to assert its criticism or support rather than pass hard-line resolutions  [xi]  . The movement continues to see a role for itself, as in its view, the worlds poorest nations remain exploited and marginalised, no longer by opposing superpowers, but rather in a uni-polar world  [xii]  , and it is Western hegemony and neo-colonialism that that the movement has really re-aligned itself against. It opposes foreign occupation, interference in internal affairs, and aggressive unilateral measures, but it has also shifted to focus on the socio-economic challenges facing member states, especially the inequalities manifested by globalisation and the implications of neo-liberal policies. The non-aligned movement has identified economic underdevelopment, poverty, and social injustices as growing threats to peace and security. It is in this context, that it would be apt to launch oneself onto a provocative and entertaining meditation on what can be called xenophilia- an affinity for strangers, a very deep but rarely acknowledged aspect in human psychology. It was at the heart of the Non-Aligned Movement, with whole nations taking pride in the trans-national friendships of their leaders, such as Nehru, Sukarno, and Nasser. It would be safe to add Mao Tse-tung to the list as well. Roads were named after leaders from other continents, a gesture not without meaning, as one can clearly argue the paucity of such a consideration in the naming of streets in London or New York. Contrary to popular acceptance, the real cosmopolitanism is to be found in the Third World, not the sophisticated West, despite its gamut of globe-trotting businessmen and tourists, touring the Holy Land or Pyramids, oblivious to the real lives of the locals  [xiii]  . The Non-Aligned Movement has had been quite successful at serving the cause of East-West understanding. Over the years, with the holding of meetings of leaders from all over the world, the deliberations and ministrations have seen the development of awareness of the aspirations, defeats and disappointments of colonized peoples as they figure out their place in the world. The Movement has set itself the task these days of fighting the escalation of words and arms between East and West, particularly between Islam and West. The maturation of the Movement in the recent past has been so profound, that the summit in Havana made headlines in the international media as a revived forum for nations that want to take an independent position in a one superpower world, even though it was subject to much scorn and ignorance by U.S. commentators. The tone was set when two leading adversaries of the United States, Iranian president Mahmoud Ahmadinejad and Venezuelan president Hugo Chavez, had embraced each other.  [xiv]   For a country like India, one of the founding nations of the movement, we would be reluctant to embrace anti-Americanism, but still it would be understandable to endorse the impulse to stand independent of the United States.  [xv]   What the Non-Aligned Movement now, and always has, expected of its member nations is to withdraw them from hanging onto the coattails of Washington, neither does it demand of them to spew invectives at the US. However some NAM countries have clearly disregarded that and have afforded themselves to be anti-American. Thus one can argue that some member nations with their strong anti-American rhetoric, have bared their fangs out, throwing all winds of logic out of the window. They have thus, consciously disregarded the binding principles and values embodied in the agreement towards creation of the Movement, as such a rising appeal for an anti-US front is self -defeating while being reconciled with the core-principle of staying independent or non-aligned. If we were to just sample some of the sound bytes emerging from Havana. Cubas acting president Raul Castro, brother of the ailing Fidel Castro, said in his inaugural address to the NAM summit: When there is no longer a Cold War, the United States spends one billion dollars a year in weapons and soldiers and it squanders a similar amount in commercial publicity. To think that a social and economic order that has proven unsustainable could be maintained by force is simply an absurd idea. He was enthusiastically backed by Irans Mahmoud Ahmedinejad and Venezuelas Hugo Chavez. FOREGROUND If we are to delve into the inspiration behind the ascent of such a Movement, where disparate cultures and civilizations separated by thousands of miles, was successful, the one aspect that stands out was the general impression that the East had lost out to the West. In the Cold War environment of the 1950s and 60s the newly independent countries of Asia and Africa found themselves facing a decision about alignment with one or the other of the two camps, a process vigorously encouraged by the superpowers and their allies. Non-alignment provided an alternative, an instrument for non-involvement: The concept of no-alignment as envisaged by the founders- Nehru, Nasser and Tito-was to serve the purpose of a safety valve for the smaller nations against pressures from the big powers and as a profilaxis against being drawn into the politics of Cold War.  [xvi]   Indeed for India, and a majority of Afro-Asian nations emerging from years of colonialism, the idea of remaining outside the influence of two super-powers through non-alignment was seen as the best option: a message from the Third World of their wish to remain free and immune from superpower Cold War rivalry. But it held more than that for Nehru for whom non-alignment was not conceived merely as a response to the military blocs or the Cold War, but as a global egalitarian movement to restructure the existing inequitable world in all its aspects; political, social and economicà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.  [xvii]   The choice of non-alignment in the wake of freedom, was an obvious one, even an unavoidable one. The two men most responsible for Indias external relations, Nehru and Krishna Menon, moulded the doctrine into a global weapon to protect itself and others against past injustice and inequitable practices. Ramachandran defines the multi-dimensional thrust of their policy fulcrum: Nehru and Menon together turned non-alignment into an effective world movement against colonialism, imperialism, racialism and the governing menace of military alliances  [xviii]  . POLICIES, TERMS AND MEANINGS As useful to a better understanding of Indias policy, pivotal to its external relations, the use of the terms neutrality and neutralism to mean the same thing as non alignment, demands clarification, because, from Indias perspective, the differences in meaning between neutralism and non-alignment is an important one. Besides, the Western political commentators often used the word neutral to mean non-aligned. While the concept of Indias non-alignment may have defied a precise interpretation, neutrality it certainly was not. Nehru, for one, was at pains to correct the misunderstanding in the West that Indias foreign policy was synonymous with neutrality. He explains the distinction with this interpretation of neutrality. à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.it means a person who sits on the fence and who cannot decide between right and wrong. India is certainly not neutralà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.She believes in non-alignment because she feels that the only way to achieve peace is to extend the climate of peace and to prevent the Cold War form spreading into other parts of the world.  [xix]   Author R Thakur extends the Nehru metaphor with his comment that, they saw themselves not so much as fence-sitters as believers in the need to uproot the fence.  [xx]   Obviously non-alignment was more than a mere moral compass, it was an active foreign policy that involved India in international conflict resolution and the attainment of peace. It was a multi-faceted foreign policy instrument which gave India freedom to choose when, where and how it would involve itself in international questions while protecting its own security. During the debate in the Lok Sabha on Korea, Nehru referred to neutrality: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦..when you say you are neutral that is a policy of not doing anythingà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦The whole essence of our policy s independence of any action, that is to say that at any moment we decide for ourselves what is best in our interests and in the interest of world peaceà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ã‚  [xxi]   BANDUNG: A THIRD WORLD VOICE NAM, which effectively represents the Third World giving it an Afro-Asian charcter, can be traced to the 1955 Bandung Conference which brought together leaders from Asia and Africa representing twenty-five countries; prominent among them were Nehru of India, Chou En Lai of China, Tito of Yougoslavia, Nasser of Egypt, Sukarno of Indonesia, and U Nu of Burma. Given the heterogeneous nature of the Bandung grouping, finding a single unifying criterion for determining membership of NAM, on which to formulate objectives was no mean task. One writer describes this dilemma for the Bandung Conference organizers, (an informal group comprising India, Pakistan, Indonesia, Sri Lanka and Burma, referred to as the Colombo Powers): Ideologies and military alliances have now so cut across frontiers of geography and skin that even to agree on Agenda was no easy undertaking  [xxii]  . The relevance of non-alignment to Indias relationship with the West in the 1950s, the bloc seen by India as obsessed with the containment of Communism, and as a consequence, actively involved in drawing Asias newly independent states to support the strategic goals of the Western camp, becomes more apparent when the aims of the Bandung conference are examined. To promote goodwill and cooperation among the nations of Asia and Africaà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦..to consider social, economic, and cultural problems,à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦to consider problems of special interestà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.(such as) racialism, colonialismà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦.to view the position of Asia and Africa ad their peoples in the world today and the contribution they can make to the promotion of world peace and co-operation  [xxiii]  . The Bandung Conference crysallised Nehrus plea for political and economic equity to generate a Third World Voice. It created an awareness in the Third World of their entitlement to a greater say in, and a fairer share of, the world system, an augur of a future protest against the subordinate status of the developing countries in the international system  [xxiv]  . Indian writer C.S. Jha saw the Bandung declaration as having affected global interaction, providing the newly independent countries with a model to guide their post-colonial futures. He describes the historic Bandung affirmation as having powerfully influenced the subsequent course of international relations and became the code of the nations that emerged from colonial domination after 1955  [xxv]  . For India, it was as exciting as 1947 and independence. The stature of Prime Minister Nehru  [xxvi]  , who played an initiatory role in bringing the non-aligned philosophy to fruition, rose in the Third World in the aftermath of this preliminary gathering of Afro-Asian states. Nehrus modest post-conference assessment of the Bandung gathering was that it may develop into something which holds together. In the Lok Sabha however, he was more expansive: While the achievements and the significance of the meeting at Bandung have been great and epoch-making, it would be a misreading of history to regard Bandung as though it was an isolated occurrence and not part of a greater movement of human history  [xxvii]  . This all helps demonstrate Nehrus unflinching commitment to world peace, the process of decolonisation, racial equality and fairer global economic equity, none of which figured in the Wests security driven, alliance diplomacy. This also helps to explain the Wests failure to persuade many of the newly independent countries, (which sought refuge in NAM after the rigours of colonialism), to align themselves with the Western camp. Furthermore, to add to their woes, the West, spearheaded by South Africa and supported by the likes of Australia, Spain, relentlessly followed the state policy of racialism in the form of Apartheid. Thus, India eventually became not only the pioneer of modern Asian nationalism  [xxviii]  , through its success in winning independence from Britain, but also, by remaining in the Commonwealth as a Republic, it established the bona fides of the new Commonwealth, based less on blood than on will  [xxix]  , it enabled many other Afro-Asian states to follow suit, undeterred by the experience of racialism and colonialism. The Apartheid policies were not only at odds with the Commonwealth ideal of equality of its members, but also strenuously opposed by Indias Nehru who was constrained to comment that if there is no solution to this problem very soon, the whole of Africa may be ablaze  [xxx]  . The declaration of Commonwealth principles, to which member nations were signatories at the Singapore Conference, was an important starting point. It states, inter alia: We recognise racial prejudice as a dangerous sickness threatening the healthy development of the human race and racial discrimination as an unmitigated evil of society. Each of us will vigorously combat this evil within our own nation. No country will afford to regimes which practice racial discrimination assistance which in its own judgement directly contributes to the pursuit or consolidation of this evil policy  [xxxi]  . CONCLUSION Probably, the most horrifying event following 9/11 is the extraordinary resurgence of imperialism as witnessed in the unfolding catastrophe in Iraq. Relations are being broken off, with the empire of the West splitting from the Third World, inciting xenophobia. European imperialism presented the choice between resistance and submission; cooperation was not an option. Europe unleashed violence on a scale unprecedented on those shores of Asia, Africa, as it did in the Americas. The peaceful trade of Muslims, Jews and Hindus in the Indian Ocean, the Arabian Sea and the Persian Gulf that lasted 500 years was ended overnight, and Portuguese hegemony lasted until the arrival of the Dutch and then the British and then the Americans. The fall of the Berlin Wall was no proof of the vindication of capitalism as conventional wisdom would have it today, but rather the last 15 years show that untrammelled capitalism leads to war and empire. The uncontested reign of one system should bring peace, but we see the opposite, with dozens of wars. There was more agreement when the UN was founded.  [xxxii]   We are at a very different moment in history now, when the words Non-Aligned seem somehow empty and discredited; today the movement is often dismissed not just as a political failure, but as a minor footnote to the great power rivalries of the Cold War. It is true of course, that the movement had many shortcomings and met with many failures. Yet it is also worth remembering that the Non-Aligned Movement as such was merely the institutional aspect of something that was much broader, wider and more powerful: this, as has been said before, was the post-war ethos of decolonization, which was a political impulse that had deep historical roots and powerful cultural resonances. In the field of culture, among other things, it represented an attempt to restore and recommence the exchanges and conversations that had been interrupted by the long centuries of European imperial dominance. It was, in this sense, the necessary and vital counterpart of the nationalist idiom of anti-colonial resistance. In the West, Third World nationalism is often presented as an ideology of xenophobia and parochialism. But the truth is that many of these movements of resistance tried very hard, within their limited means, to create a universalism of their own. In that period, any citizen of the Third World will recall how powerfully they were animated by an emotion that is rarely named: xenophilia, the love of the other, the affinity for strangers a feeling that lives very deep in the human heart, but whose very existence is rarely acknowledged. Even in the 19th century, the high noon of Empire, people from Africa, Asia and elsewhere, sought each other out, wrote letters to each other, and stayed in each others homes while travelling. Lately, a great number of memoirs and autobiographies have been published that attest to the depth and strength of these ties. It was no accident therefore that Mahatma Gandhi chose to stop in Egypt, in order to see Saad Zaghloul before proceeding to the Round Table Conference in London. Yet it would be idle to pretend that solutions could be found by looking backwards in time. That was a certain historical moment and it has passed. Except that this time we must correct the mistake that lay at the heart of that older anti-colonial impulse which is that we must not only include the West within this spectrum of desire, we must also acknowledge that both the West and we ourselves have been irreversibly changed by our encounter with each other. We must recognize that in the West, as in Asia, Africa and elsewhere, there are great numbers of people who, by force of circumstance, have become xenophiles, in the deepest sense, of acknowledging that in matters of language, culture and civilization, their heritage, like ours, is fragmented, fissured and incomplete.

Suleiman the Magnificent

The Ottoman Empire was an empire lasting from 1299 to 1923. Osman was leading the small Ottoman Empire in 1299 in western Anatolia and he was slowly extending his settlements away from his Muslim neighbors. It was not allowed for Muslims to kill other Muslims. He had a number of soldiers called the Ghazis who were brave, loyal and fearless. These solders helped Osman tread into unknown land and spread his rule. Osman’s name was becoming more known and after his death, people called him courageous strong and great. This is where the centuries old Turkish saying comes from: â€Å"May he be as good as Osman. † After a few centuries the Ottoman Empire was flourishing, it spanned 3 continents and contained 29 provinces. Suleiman the Magnificent was responsible for the prospering Empire that he ruled from 1520 to his death in 1566. Suleiman uses three main factors to run his empire successfully and cohesively. Suleiman the Magnificent used economic, social and military systems or techniques to develop a cohesive empire across a massive and culturally diverse land. Suleiman the Magnificent had a very culturally accepted land; this benefited the empire a lot since people with different religious backgrounds could live together. The Millet system was made by Sultan Mehmet the Second after he conquered Constantinople in 1453. Mehmet started by instituting the Christian Millets so that Europeans could join the Empire. Millets is what Suleiman used to make sure civilians could live peacefully. The sectors were not defined by ethnical background, rather by religious beliefs. This way a person from any decent could live in a sector without getting discriminated. There were five of these sectors: Muslims, Orthodox Christians, Armenians, Syriac Orthodox and Judaism. Each sector was usually run by a religious hierarch, like a priest. Millets were so effective because they prevented internal fights in the Empire and travelers felt safe. Another strategy that Suleiman used was that he distributed his laws publicly; this is where his nick name comes from â€Å"Suleiman the Lawgiver. † Making sure that there weren’t any civil wars was a big part of being a leader. If an enemy doesn’t strike from outside, an enemy may strike from inside. A civil war can cause many deaths and disrupt the focus of any leader. Suleiman would have to put all of his attention to people fighting inside his nation instead of focusing on incoming attacks from the outside. A lot of empires have fallen due to internal attacks. Interaction with other sectors was not too often which helps people be in an environment where everyone follows the same religion. There is also almost no interference from the government on how the leader chooses to run the Millets. Things like taxes and sometimes even laws aren’t checked by the government because there aren’t any rules against having different styles of living. Travelers from different religious backgrounds can now enter a land where they don’t have to be feared of not being able to walk in and get hurt because of their differences. This encourages travelers, who are usually traders to come to this culturally diverse and peaceful land to trade their goods, instead of going to Europe where only one religion was accepted: Christianity. Suleiman put out the laws on streets so that all could read and understand what is allowed and what is not. This was important because now everyone knew the difference between right and wrong. This also prevented officials from making fake or arbitrary laws. The Millet system and publicly distributing laws helped Suleiman the Magnificent lead a cohesive Empire because it prevented civil wars and officials planning schemes for the worst of the Ottoman empire. Suleiman’s Empire was also very economically strong; he managed to lead the richest Empire in the world at the time and own the gateway between the Black, Marmora, Aegean and Mediterranean Sea. Constantinople was part of the Roman Empire before Mehmed the Second conquered it in 1453. Mehmed primarily used gunpowder and ships to take over the centre of trade. At one point in the battle Constantinople made a golden chain in the sea so that Mehmed’s ships could not pass through. To solve the problem Mehmed used planks covered with grease to transport the ships over land, possibly to show his power and intimidate the enemy. Today Constantinople is known as Istanbul. Suleiman the Magnificent used Istanbul and the caravan routes to increase the income of the Empire. Istanbul was very effective due to its geographical position; it had a thin river going through it which was the only way to enter Africa, the Middle East and Europe by sea. This little strip of water is called the Bosphorous and whoever owned Istanbul could get money off of all the taxation of the heavy traffic. Ships carried silk, tea, spices and porcelain. From the Black Sea and southern Russian came ships with different types of furs, grain and amber. From Europe came mirrors and drugs. Ships from Venice and Genoa carried goods to Europe. The Ottoman navy protected the Bosphorous from pirates and other kinds of thieves. There was a tax on almost every transaction, but profit was limited to 10%. The trade through the Bosphorous was strictly looked after by the government to make sure there wasn’t any cheating or theft. When an employee left a company the government was notified right away. All markets were assigned a judge who had the right to punish those who tried to cheat. The government also made sure there weren’t any exports containing anything valuable like building material, minerals and food. The caravan routes were an essential part of making the Ottoman Empire richer than any other. Caravans were made up of groups of people and animals. Up to 20,000 people and 300,000 animals could be a general caravan traveling to Mecca made up of pilgrims and merchants. Numerous goods were shipped across the Middle East, Europe and North Africa. There were hundreds of routes that were protected by Ottoman soldiers. Since these routes were protected, Suleiman taxed travelers, and with the enormous amounts of people, they could make huge amounts of money. The caravan routes and Istanbul were two ways which Suleiman used to perfect his economy. This income was spent on extending his Empire and building various religious buildings to keep his Millets happy. Happy people meant a more cohesive Empire because everyone will stay motivated to do their job and stay in the Empire. Military is a massive part to a successful Empire, fortunately Suleiman had everything under control and used a system that really worked well. The Devschirme system started with Murad the First in the late 1300’s. Murad felt a need to counter the Turkic Nobles and started making a Christian army, independent of the regular army. It started off with two types of soldiers: infantry and cavalry. The cavalry was known as Kapikulu suvari (The Cavalry of the Servants of the Porte) and the infantry was called Yeni Ceri (Janissary. ) Firstly Christian slaves were trained for the elite force, but then the Devschirme system started to develop and Christian children were being adopted by the government to be brought up as Muslims. Then they would train in one of the four imperial institutions: the Palace, the Scribes, the Religious or the Military. Janissaries, army recruitment and technology are why the Military of Suleiman the Magnificent helped make a cohesive Empire. Janissary soldiers helped fight every major battle. They fought in wars against Austria and Hungary, defeated the Egyptian Mamluks and conquered Constantinople. Without the Janissaries there was a possibility that regular soldiers would not be able to withstand forces from Austria or Hungary and the Ottoman Empire could have been long captured. There were hundreds of trade routes to patrol and a huge border to protect. For this, the Empire needed an enormous army, but luckily with Suleiman Sultan the Military was always in best shape possible. Everyone who was captured would have to enroll in the army and serve the Empire. This way the Ottomans were never short on recruits, and don’t have to worry about any locations that they couldn’t control because of shortage on soldiers. The Ottomans were always ahead in technology when Suleiman was leading the Empire. They used gunpowder and ships to fight battles more efficiently, with cannons and gunpowder they could easily take down fort walls and with ships they could attack from sea. Janissaries, army recruitment and technology had the Ottoman Empire protected at all times. This way people did not need to worry about incoming attacks, but rather on their daily routines. Suleiman lead a very healthy empire by perfecting the economic, social and military aspects of the Empire to make it successful. The empire worked together not as individual people, making it very cohesive. When Suleiman’s reign finished the Empire headed downhill, but like Napoleon said â€Å"Turks can be defeated but never destroyed. †

Macroeconomics Article Commentary Essay

The worst problems surrounding youth unemployment in Scotland are not over, a Scottish Government Minister told MSPs today. Despite statistics showing a rise in jobs on offer, Minister for Youth Employment Angela Constance said that such a claim would be foolish. She said that improvements in Scotland’s economy would resolve some problems of getting young people into work. But she added that, in the long-term, work is needed to help those facing â€Å"considerable barriers†. Constance’s remarks came as she appeared before Holyrood’s Education Committee to answer questions on the Scottish Government’s Youth Employment Strategy, and ahead of the publication of the latest job figures tomorrow. Figures show that 102,000 young people are currently unemployed in Scotland. That represents around one in four of those aged 16-24 who are economically active. â€Å"Given the recent economic indicators that suggest things are slightly improving in terms of vacancies, do you think we’re over the most challenging year, and have met the greatest challenge?† Ms Constance said she would not be â€Å"foolish enough to look into her crystal ball† and make such predictions. â€Å"We’ll deal with what comes our way,† she said. Pressed by Labour MSP Neil Bibby on whether she believed there is a youth unemployment crisis in Scotland, Ms Constance said: â€Å"What I believe is that we need to be in this for the long haul.† She told MSPs there were around 20,000 young people from disadvantaged backgrounds who face â€Å"considerable barriers to getting into work†. â€Å"When we think of youth unemployment, some of that will be resolved when the economy picks up and gets better,† she added. â€Å"But youth unemployment is always two and a half to three times higher than all-age unemployment. â€Å"There is always an issue there that we need to tackle and it is long-term action we need.† IA Commentary #2: Youth unemployment requires long-term action Just like a majority of all countries, Scotland is facing struggle in their economic recovery after the recession. The problem being addressed in the chosen article speaks about the youth unemployment crisis that is occurring in the country. Demand in the consumer sector is not what the main problem is. Apparently, the youth (age 16 – 24) have reached unemployment (ability to work but don’t have a job) rates of 25% due to â€Å"disadvantaged backgrounds†. This can most likely be assumed that these people have had a lack of education and do not have the sufficient skills to apply for the desired jobs. This could be labeled as a ‘skill mismatch’ between workers’ skills and employers’ needs. Unemployment can have a significant negative impact on a country’s economy and society. As the unemployment level rises, the more people are eligible for benefit payments (money given to the unemployed to consume basic necessities) which take away from the government’s revenue and spending power. Secondly, and most importantly, unemployment can cause a waste of resources and reduce the nation’s output which will lower the economy’s GDP. With this loss of the nation’s output, the economy will be producing within its PPF (Production Possibility Frontier: ability to produce ALL available resources efficiently) and lowers/decreases economic growth. The following labor market diagram can depict what unemployment the market is facing. As seen in the diagram, the labor market is shown in a simple AD/AS model. At Qe, the labor market is at equilibrium as the demand for labor matches the supply. Though, in this case, the supply of labor has decreased causing the AS curve to shift leftwards. This shows that the market is not running at full efficiency as production is being hindered. The resource of workers are not being allocated at high efficiency because they are lacking the factor of production of education. These factors of production are inputs that are used in the production of goods/services. The suggested solution of the article is to seek ‘long-term’ action to regain the loss of supply/productivity in the skill deprived market. Government intervention seems to be the solution to correct those workers facing ‘considerable barriers’ or lack of education. The reallocation of the government fiscal policy to boost economic activity will have to see a greater percentage of revenue towards the education sector. The fiscal policy is the use of the government expenditure and taxation to manage the economy. In this case, a supply-side policy will need to be rearranged to improve the quality of resources which would education in this situation. A period of economic austerity will definitely be needed as the government will be forced to lower discretionary spending (expenditure that is adjusted annually) in other sectors to assure that the current and future youth have better education and provide the economy with better qualities of production. Using the same labor market diagram, you will see the result of increasing the quality of the factor of production (education) as the supply of ‘able’ workers rises back to equilibrium. The diagram shows the effect of re-allocated supply-side fiscal policy (policies to alter the level of supply to create a stable economy) towards increased spending for the education sector. The government can lower the number of un-educated workers/youths that lack adequate skills by subsidizing education and implementing better training for jobs. Currently, the aggregate supply for young Scottish workers lies on the ‘AS Labor’ curve as firms can’t hire the un-skilled workers. This leads the real GDP, or the output of the country to be lower as goods and services aren’t being produced at maximum efficiency due to the lack of workers. The long-run solution that is alluded in the text would definitely be to improve the education system because currently the economy is running on spare capacity (producing at less than maximum efficiency). The economy would have to bare with the supply crisis until the workers have acquired the adequate skills. If the re-evalution of the fiscal policy is used by the Scottish government, then they can potentially fix this skill-mismatch issue and avoid disastrous economic problems. Lastly, to ensure economic safety, the Scottish government should restrain from borrowing money and spend money on other projects to allow them to fix their problem. This could hinder the development in other sectors as the money available to them should be placed towards education.

Legalization Of Same Sex Marriage - 1594 Words

Why The Nationwide Legalization Of Same Sex Marriage Will Greatly Benefit The Economy Same-sex marriage has been a long debated issue in the United States. Since the nationwide legalization of same-sex marriage in countries such as Holland, Belgium, and Canada American gay couples have been pushing harder for equal marriage rights under the law. Opponents claim that allowing same-sex unions would not only lead to less stable marriages and higher divorce rates for heterosexual couples, but also precipitate an economic crisis. Marriage is intended to be the mechanism by which humans divide and pass on property; same-sex marriage disrupts the traditional practice of passing property on to one’s children. (Allen, 961) However, the breakdown in the economic and social fabric opponents of same-sex marriage fear will not occur. Research shows that same-sex unions greatly benefit the economy at several levels and in many ways. I believe that legalizing same-sex marriage will boost the nations economy by tax revenues, adoption fess, and increases in tourism. The view that marriage is only intended for divorce is a pessimistic outlook. Legalizing same-sex marriages nationwide will not only benefit gay couples through taxes and division of property, but also it will boost the economy and open the wedding industry to the estimated 4 million homosexual couples in America. Legalizing gay marriage will bring in $20 to $40 million more dollars per year in taxes. This would boost theShow MoreRelatedLegalization Of Same Sex Marriage Essay963 Words   |  4 PagesKaye Shannelle Romuar Alfritz Arevalo Angelika Figueroa Legalization of Same-Sex Marriage I. Introduction Same-sex marriage can also be called gay marriage. This is a marriage between two males or two females, in either a religious setting or in a civil ceremony. 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Analysis Of Warhol s First Solo New York Exhibit At...

â€Å"An artist is someone who produces things that people don’t need to have.† This was one of the many famous quotes uttered by the eccentric yet revolutionary artist, Andy Warhol. At first one might think this quote would be the word of an advertising agent and indeed it is. This very idea, however, is what created the commercialized idea of Pop Art in the 1960s. Andy Warhol’s background as a commercial illustrator provided him with the ability to pioneer a new artistic movement. Warhol highlights the American shift towards consumerism through his work by using the techniques used by marketing plans, such as mass production and rhetoric. Warhol’s first solo New York exhibit at Eleanor Ward’s Stable Gallery established the spark of commercialism and pop culture that is heavily embedded in our society today. Warhol used his knowledge of advertisements; his artistic talents and his impeccable timing to single-handedly illuminate the societal ideals of products and celebrities alike in his artwork. Art movements work in cyclic patterns. Each new form works as a cause of the previous movement or event. Abstract Expressionism—the movement before Pop Art—reflected the idea that expression could not be found in traditional forms. They focused their art on being subjective, expressing psyche and emotion (Swisher). This development is what sparked the artistic movement, Pop Art, in the 1960s. Pop Art challenged this assertion and then-dominant ideals of expressionism. It used

Ielts Essay Samples 9 Band Reviews & Guide

Ielts Essay Samples 9 Band Reviews & Guide Ruthless Ielts Essay Samples 9 Band Strategies Exploited Introduction People appear to be either excited or worried about the upcoming effect of artificial intelligence. If you take a close look at the question carefully, you will observe there are two tasks. Here are the chief benefits and disadvantages of studying abroad. In order to reach this, I must study diligently every evening after classes. For a better-crafted answer imagine that your the examiner does not have any prior knowledge in the region and thus attempt to explain each detail. My writing preparation also wouldn't be efficient without the site of the teacher Chris Pell and his on-line correction services. Inside my case, aside from immense practicing, an efficient means to acquire confidence was supposed to work on IELTS Speaking test with an appropriate teacher. Please note this report is a lot shorter than normal because there were not any recommendations for improvement. There is an excellent selection of complex sentence and structures also. This paragraph demonstrates an outstanding understanding of the necessary grammar and vocabulary. You must take care of the tone if it's format letter keep the formal tone otherwise informal tone. Freedom of expression and speech is a critical portion of the majority of modern societies. There is a broad variety of rather natural vocabulary required to spell out a graph and there are not any spelling mistakes. While my handwriting is not especially neat, it's legible. However, it's sometimes claimed that any youngster can be taught to be a fantastic sports person or musician. Broaden your vocabulary every single day. There are several smart scientists who don't have the funds to acquire important info to finish their research. CONCLUSION In conclusion, distributing information totally free of charge can help in some specific facets but can also be damaging to society. Also, certain sorts of information in the incorrect hands can be devastating for society. Even though within this situation free knowledge is beneficial, it's not true in all circumstances. Ielts Essay Samples 9 Band - Overview Hotels, restaurants and tour operators may also permit staff to accept tips provided by clients that are happy with the service. Such folks are usually singled out wit h the assistance of clients. Regardless of this, there are a few who say that museums are unsustainable without the money they may get from ticket sales. The opening paragraph has all of the crucial details about the graph but itparaphrasesthe question. Within the next sentence try to place some examples drawn from regular life even if you're not asked to. Thus this sentence is going to have the most important idea and essence of your whole paragraph. Write your introduction in a couple of sentences. What the In-Crowd Won't Tell You About Ielts Essay Samples 9 Band On the flip side, it is going to cause you to get unhappy and pay with repairing it. Hence, it's said, marry for money is right in a point. CAUSES Firstly, it would appear that a substantial quantity of blame can be given to bad diet along with the marketing of unhealthy food toward young men and women. Firstly, it appears that a substantial quantity of blame can be given to bad diet together with the marketin g of unhealthy food toward young individuals. Thus don't get intimidated if you believe you cannot write such essays. Your essay won't arrive perfectly on the very first go. A well-structured essay has a fantastic introduction, body paragraphs that are simple to follow and connect together, and a great conclusion. To begin with, complete the essay once possible. Surely, there are lots of tactics to organise this essay. I have an extremely embarrassing story to inform you regarding the IELTS writing test. It's normal to fail IELTS repeatedly. The Nuiances of Ielts Essay Samples 9 Band It's almost not possible to cater for each colleague's demands and interests, be nice even with those who irritate you, and make friends under stressful problems. You're not writing to a friend or relative. However, I think that marriage should involve a blend of both love and money. You've outlined what it is that you are likely to speak about and at exactly the same time made your opinion very very clear. As a British individual who has experienced other European nations and now lives in the USA, I can surely testify that living away from your house country can be hard on occasion. Firstly, you've got to spell out why (give reasons) families aren't so close. Although some men and women hold the view that parents have the obligation to teach their children to turn into a great member of the society, others think that the school is the perfect place to learn social values. Another enormous negative is that students and kids that are learning about the world might not be in a position to see.

Leadership for Strengths - Weaknesses - myassignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about theLeadershipfor Strengths, Weaknesses and Strategies. Answer: According to Miller (2001), leadership refers to the capacity to translate vision into reality. Global history presents great leaders who possess a zest for change, dazzling social intelligence, and above all, a vision that guides them on various missions and works on things that truly merit attention. Moreover, leaders have the mandate of developing a vision by establishing what matters and push people to take that particular direction by inspiring others (Plowman et al., 2007). This report will highlight the characteristics of world-famous leaders with associated theories in addition to exposing how those qualities relate to me including real-life examples. Further, the report will highlight my culture, strengths, weaknesses, and strategies to overcome the weaknesses. Leadership characteristics Partnership building Good leadership has the ability to get people to work together as there is that compelling feeling to do so. Such leaders gain the cooperation of others, friends, and enemies, by making a commitment to get along well with everyone. They tend to build long-lasting relationships with friends and enemies alike (Obama, 2007). In his second term in American leadership, Barack Obama visited Cuba to create a partnership that was long lost after the Second World War. A good leader recognizes that every country or individual is very important in building our society. Through partnerships, Obama endeavored to consolidate peace in the world. Effective-communication Effective communication has the power to keep individuals working on a project continue with the right attitude. When a leader communicates effectively while giving advice, on issues and expectations, the followers will respond positively and help meet the desired goals (Barrett, 2006). In many occasions, good orators have become leaders in our society. They speak with a vigor which tends to persuade followers on what they believe in. For example, Barack Obama won the heart of Americans through his marvelous speeches on the campaign podium. As a result, he got the majority believe in his campaign line, Yes We Can. Through his communication skills, he solved problems and even ruled with the minority in Congress without going through an impeachment process. Self-confidence Self-belief is very integral in leadership (De Cremer Van Knippenberg, 2004). It is the driving tool on which leaders bank on in times of crisis. Having a strong vision and willingness to persevere the storms and life challenges distinguish strong and admirable leaders. Leaders who believe in their thought, vision, and mission and work towards them is a resource and an inspiration to his or her followers. A leader like Nelson Mandela had the confidence of delivering South Africans from the apartheid rule. He believed in what he was doing and his belief inspired people. As such, even when he was in prison, South Africans continued to fight for their liberation. They fought in the footsteps and belief of Nelson Mandela. Courageous According to ?en, Kabak, and Yang?nlar (2013), undisputed leaders possess the tenacity to stand alone and not to succumb to any pressure. Besides, they also possess the patience of keeping fighting for what they believe in until they succeed. Despite facing opposition and threats, they keep on fighting without giving up. For example, Fidel Castro kept on fighting for the rights of Cubans amid criticism and war from the United States. He expressed his dreams on every stage he set his foot and stood his ground to the end. High locus of control Great leaders have the ability to command control of who are under them irrespective of challenges or problems that befall them (Spears, 2010). Taking control and not giving up is key to sustainability. Control also work hand in hand with influence. Having the gist to gain following even if enemies strike distinguishes leaders and dictators. For example, the late Cuban President, Fidel Castrol took control of his country despite unending fights from American soldiers. He managed to consolidate his people to support him in the midst of propaganda peddled by the United States Army. Servant leadership Servant leadership entails working for the benefit of the people (Spears, 2010). It involves dedicating resources and time serving people's interest, needs without fear of favor. Listening to people's problems and coming up with strategies to meet them. One of such leaders is former Uruguay president Jose Mujica who dedicated his life and resources to serve his people. In many societies, many people who are in power use that opportunity to grab wealth but Jose used his power and position to serve the interest of less fortunate in Uruguay. A rare quality in the modern day leadership (Bolden Gosling, 2006). My strengths and weaknesses in relation to the leadership characteristics Strengths One of my strengths is courage. I often possess the tenacity of facing my fears head-on. When I encounter any challenge, I do take a deep breath and handle it with sobriety. I tend to push my vision and mission even in the midst of opposition. Acting on my instincts have helped me weather various storms, more so in my academic journey. My courage played a crucial role during my primary education. Despite being the youngest in our class, I contested for the class managers post which I successfully won. Self-confidence is one of the key drivers of our daily life (De Cremer Van Knippenberg, 2004). It took confidence to enroll in this program despite my friends discouraging me. I usually believe in my abilities and does not succumb to pressure from people who are often timid and lazy to stand for anything. I believe with this program, I will transform my society by acting as a role model to the younger generations. Weaknesses Even though am very good at communications, I often find it a challenge to address a congregation more so if they are visitors on my sight. Despite being able to articulate words correctly, I do develop stage fright when it comes to the multitude of people. But since good leaders like Barack Obama can speak good English, full of appropriate interjections and choice of words, they are also able to talk publicly without fear. As such, I have started training on strategies to overcome stage fright by watching on YouTube. Most recently, I have also taken a role in my church to sing in the choir. This will help me face a big number of people and develop the courage to overcome stage mania. Despite being a leader, it is my weakness to consolidate control. I attribute this weakness to being humble and soft-spoken. Control requires some degree of aggressiveness and is rare for me, owing to the fact that I fear to talk to a multitude of people. Plans are underway to gain control of people whom I lead by overcoming stage fright by participating in drama and cultural dances. Analysis of my cultural context and how they impact my leadership abilities My culture encourages people to believe in themselves. Children are today encouraged to participate in cultural dances and drama to boost their self-confidence. As such, they grow with high self-esteem, an attribute of good leadership (Eddleston, 2008). Besides cultural dances and drama, our culture believes in nurturing children to get to know how to perform various duties. Parents who have business engage children during free time to orient them with real-life activities. Intrinsically, we get to acquire skills to interact with people and accommodate divergent opinions. In my community, fathers are perceived as the head of the family. As such, we learn early enough to gain high locus of control even beyond family boundaries. Such skills come in handy, especially while we are carrying out class discussions (Judge Piccolo, 2004). On the other hand, we are taught in our culture to be mindful of other people. Greeting our friends and neighbors is the norm. During these periods, we get to know their health status, whether they have troubling challenges or not. On instances that our friends have problems, we encourage one another. In essence, we develop empathy for one another, which is an aspect of servant leadership. Comparative analysis of my strengths with leadership characteristics of Fidel Castro Fidel Castro remains one of the greatest revolutionary leaders in the world. His courage to stand firm on his principles and belief to defend his people made the Cubans stick with him regardless of the immense outside political pressures (Blight Kornbluh, 1998). Castro staged unwavering stance in the United States for over fifty years. That leadership ability to stand for something distinguishes great leaders and others. I can relate my strength as being courageous to stand for what I believe in as Fidel Castro did to protect his people. For instance, we were one day late for school and the teacher on duty was very ruthless on latecomers. My friends opted to go back home, but I dared them and just approached the teacher and explained myself, and luckily the teacher did not punish me. On that scenario, were it not for my courage, I would have gone back home and missed that day's learning experience. Self-confidence entails expressing what you believe in. Fidel Castro, had a strong conviction in his communist party and stood for the Cuban people regardless of different political views, and often protected the national interest of the Cuban people (Blight Kornbluh, 1998). Great leaders have an inner conviction of their belief, they champion it on any stage despite facing immense opposition. My self-confidence is slightly at per with that of Fidel Castro. I pursue what I believed in no matter the circumstance. At the beginning of last semester, I had the conviction of scoring at least 4 grade A. fortunately, I ended up scoring three grade A. this surely shows that self-confidence is a tool to achieving greatness. Comparative analysis of my weaknesses with leadership characteristics of Fidel Castro Despite being a great leader, Fidel Castro had a challenge of effectively communicating his plans and agenda to the Cubans (Malici Malici, 2005). Consequently, American soldiers infiltrated communications channels to spread propaganda on Fidel. One day, I failed to inform my teacher prior that I will be late in submitting my assignment. The teacher ended up penalizing me by deducting ten percent of my score. Were it that I was privy of effective communication strategies, I would not have been penalized. Therefore, I endeavor to learn effective communication strategies to avoid such problems in the future. Since Fidel was in charge of Cuba, he had a weakness of consolidating control of both the communist and the capitalist party. And this made it easy for American soldiers to penetrate their territory. Leadership recommends bringing different groups together when faced with an external challenge (Bunck, 2010). In one particular time, I failed to take control of my younger brothers who were in a constant fight over a toy. I lacked the skills to exercise high locus of control over them. And I am working on skills to command control in whatever I do. Rationale for development Personal development entails overcoming weaknesses and finding ways of improving key strengths (Mumford Gold, 2004). To overcome my weakness, I can take the following rationale; being honest with myself, thinking at what point I started developing those weaknesses and trying to figuring out some of the reasons that contribute to my weaknesses. Besides, I can also create a rationale for development by listing my plans for the future to adjust accordingly. And finally, seek the necessary support to overcome my weaknesses and strengthen my abilities. Opportunities for development Time management is essential for progress in any aspect. Therefore, I will endeavor to create time to enhance my leadership skills. Mumford and Gold (2004), note that time management and leadership go together. I will plan my time appropriately to avoid wastages during weekends and engage in constructive activities for personal growth. Enhancing collaborations through participating in communal activities will be very vital in strengthening my abilities and overcome my weaknesses. Better collaboration with my elders will give me an opportunity of learning and acquire new skills. I will also have an opportunity to follow their footsteps to be a better leader. According to Greenstein (2009), respect is a crucial attribute for leaders. Therefore, I will ensure that I maintain a good relationship with my fellow students, teachers, and even elders in the society. Through this, they will accord me opportunities and conducive environment to nurture my leadership ability. This will go further to enhancing my tolerance to accommodate divergent opinion at any point in my life. Relevant strategies for development Overcoming stage fright while communicating with people requires strategies like watching films that model conversation skills (Lee, 2002). For example, as I have started watching from YouTube and TED. From the films, I will learn body language, how to maintain eye contact, summarizing, and responding to questions. I can adapt using technology such as audio books and mobile applications to master diction and pronunciation of different words. Besides, I can reinforce active listening to my teachers and offer group presentations and assignments which will enhance my delivery skills. Finally, I can participate in reflective learning opportunities to build confidence and courage when presenting too many people. By enhancing my communication skills, I will be able to exercise stage control which is also integral in promoting high locus control (Maguire Pitceathly, 2002). Being confident goes further to improving our authoritative nature. More and more presentation in drama, cultural dances, and assignments will boost my self-confidence, courage, creating partnerships, and acquire servant leadership techniques. Enhancing my self-confidence may involve taking more challenges in the society. For example, I can take the responsibility of teaching Sunday school children in our church. This will help me learn more on presentations and handle diverse behaviors. In addition, I can also take an initiative of offering to teach the congregation during youth seminar and coordinate bible study. It will go a long way to improving my leadership skills like those of Barack Obama, Mahatma Gandhi, Martin Luther King Junior among others. Great leaders banks on coming up with innovative ways doing things (Surie Hazy, 2006). As such, I will work extra hard by carrying out research to improve my innovation skills. Solving societal problems by coming up with simple ways will be a way of promoting change. In the words of Obama, change is possible when we believe. When we believe in ourselves and in what we do, other people will learn from us thus we grow and develop the society. Indicators of success for the strategies Communication indicator It will be evident that I have learned and acquired good communication skills if I will address a congregation, crowd, or class without fumbling (Maguire Pitceathly, 2002). It will also be evident when I will accommodate diverging opinion without having to snub any person. Moreover, I shall have horned my skills if I can present seamlessly, including asking and answering questions. Self-confidence indicators My confidence in whatever I do will be a bear fruits when I take challenges and find ways of solving them instead of dodging. Self-confidence entails believing one's actions no matter the circumstance (McCormick, 2001). It will also be evident how I present my items on stage, be it drama, cultural dances, or teaching children in Sunday school without fear. Innovation indicators My innovation skills will be clear when I create new ideas in solving social problems and achieving my goals or even inventing new ways to teaching Sunday school children. Furthermore, my innovative skills will be claer when I inspire the imagination of people as they come up with strategies of doing daily activities (Barsh, Capozzi Davidson, 2008). Locus control indicator Locus control will be evident when I will be able to organize my peers or even adults to execute an activity successfully. Resources and support needed to execute the strategies To execute any goals successfully, there should be time and commitment. Therefore, to achieve the strategies, I will need time as a resource. Through better time management, I will plan my training on presentation, communication, innovation and exercising locus control. Additionally, I will need money to enhance my dressing since leadership requires smart people. The money will also go a long way in enabling me to access audio books and watch films online in a bid to improve my communication. Above all, I need leadership skills which will guide my interaction with other people as I endeavor to learn. Time frames for implanting the strategies Being a student, I will be practicing communication in every lesson I take thus I shall enhance that skill in the course of my academic journey. Besides, I can practice drama and dance in the evening in our school hall and more so during drama and cultural festivals. Furthermore, during Sundays, as I go to church, I will horn my presentation skills as I teach Sunday school children and bible study groups. Thus, I will be covering those aspects as I go to church. In our church, we conduct corporate social responsibility once a month by engaging in clean-up exercises. It is during these periods that I will coordinate my fellow youth to harness my locus control ability. Simultaneous, I will come with innovative ways of giving back to the society which ultimately will enhance my innovative skills. References Bunck, J. M. (2010).Fidel Castro and the quest for a revolutionary culture in Cuba. Penn State Press. Barrett, D. J. (2006). Strong communication skills a must for todays leaders.Handbook of business strategy,7(1), 385-390. Bolden, R., Gosling, J. (2006). Leadership competencies: time to change thetune.Leadership,2(2), 147-163. Blight, J. G., Kornbluh, P. (Eds.). (1998).Politics of illusion: the Bay of Pigs invasion reexamined(p. 59). Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner. Barsh, J., Capozzi, M. M., Davidson, J. (2008). Leadership and innovation.McKinsey Quarterly,1, 36. De Cremer, D., Van Knippenberg, D. (2004). 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(2004).Management development: Strategies for action. CIPD Publishing. Malici, A., Malici, J. (2005). The operational codes of Fidel Castro and Kim Il Sung: the last cold warriors.Political Psychology,26(3), 387-412. McCormick, M. J. (2001). Self-efficacy and leadership effectiveness: Applying social cognitive t heory to leadership.Journal of Leadership Studies,8(1), 22-33. Maguire, P., Pitceathly, C. (2002). Key communication skills and how to acquire them.Bmj,325(7366), 697-700. Obama, B. (2007). Renewing american leadership.Foreign Affairs, 2-16. Plowman, D. A., Solansky, S., Beck, T. E., Baker, L., Kulkarni, M., Travis, D. V. (2007). The role of leadership in emergent, self-organization.The Leadership Quarterly,18(4), 341- 356. ?en, A., Kabak, K. E., Yang?nlar, G. (2013). Courageous Leadership for the Twenty-First Century.Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences,75, 91-101. Surie, G., Hazy, J. K. (2006). Generative leadership: Nurturing innovation in complex systems.Emergence-Mahwah-Lawrence Erlbaum-,8(4), 13. Spears, L. C. (2010). Character and servant leadership: Ten characteristics of effective, caring leaders.The Journal of Virtues Leadership,1(1), 25-30.